Pedagogy can be described as the method and approach to teaching. It is also important to understand how this process is influenced by the development of different learners and the specific learning needs in a diversified classroom. As educators, it is vital for us to understand how our students best learn and respond to different styles or methods of teaching, as well as what connects and engages them fully into the classwork to achieve their greatest potential.
In an English context, pedagogical understanding is evident in the following example:
A class is to write a creative writing piece based off a stimulus, I may include stimulus in different forms (written, visual, etc) to cater for students who may respond more confidently to a particular medium. By doing this, I am creating an environment which supports the differentiated needs of students which in turn will promote self-motivation and independence. A lesson like this gives the opportunity to assess the individual needs of students which is reflected in their choice of stimulus and overall writing.
Similarly, pedagogical understanding is evident in the mode I may chose to deliver this activity, are students to work independently or collaboratively? Will group leaders be assigned or are students confident enough to manage their own groups?
Understanding pedagogy and the class dynamic is essential to success in the classroom.
Inevitably, one will encounter challenging behaviours in the classroom. Although there is no one rule which fits every classroom, there are many strategies which may be implemented to help manage challenging behaviours as well as acknowledge where they may stem from.
Foremostly, the classroom does not exist in a vacuum, and therefore students bring with them incredibly diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, skillsets, values, and personalities. As professionals it is our duty to navigate class dynamics and create a positive environment which fosters learning and wellbeing.
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development may be used to consider why a student may be exhibiting challenging behaviours. The ZPD is the area between what students are capable of completing independently and what they are incapable of doing, it identifies that student are able to extend themselves with support and acknowledges students who are either bored or overloaded may exhibit challenging behaviours.
Alongside Vygotsky’s ZPD, it is essential to establish a productive class environment. On an early practicum experience in the Visual Arts classroom, I engaged a year 7 class in a collaborative game of ‘spot the difference’ to challenge their visual literacy and comprehension of the structural frame. Students were split in teams and tasked with finding the most differences between two works. At first, the task was highly engaging, all students were involved in the task, team leaders were selected as well as a scribe to record their groups answers. However, students began misbehaving at the conclusion of a task when teams were sharing results.
One team suggested the bowls in work A were different to work B and calculated this as one difference.
Another team made the same suggestion but counted each individual bowl and therefore calculated 5 differences.
Because I had not foreseen this issue and established a clear guideline, students became frustrated and misbehaved. In future, it is essential to set clear guidelines around activities particularly when engaging in competitive activities to manage challenging behaviours in the classroom.
Backwards Design is an effective approach to curriculum planning and designing a unit of work. The Backwards design approach is comprised of three stages:
Stage 1, Identifying the desired results
Stage 2, Evidence of learning by assessment
Stage 3, learning activities which lead to success
(NESA, 2021).
On investigating both the Backwards By Design and Constructive Alignment approach to designing a UOW, I feel that these methods complement each other and can be effectively used together to create a successful unit of work. Our Visual Arts KLA group developed a unit of work for year 9 titled Impressions: An exploration of Impressionism with the purpose:
Students develop and apply an understanding of artist practice, the conceptual framework, and the frames to the critical and historical studies of impressionist artworks and to the development of their own impressionist BOW.
By identifying the outcomes from the syllabus and deciding on a summative assessment, we were then able to determine the evidence that we would accept as achievements of these outcomes/success criteria. From this, we were able to plan the learning and teaching experiences for the unit. The learning activities will build a foundation for the students to fulfil their assignment tasks successfully.
For example, the students will have to write a reflection which compares and contrast their work to their chosen artist. To be able to successfully complete this component of the assessment they must draw from the case studies learned in class and structure their response effectively through completion of writing tasks. Similarly, in order for the successful completion of the art making component of the assessment task, students must engage in the painting workshops, experimentation and planning in their VAPDs.
Bandura’s Social-cognitive theory involves a triad of factors, being cognitive, behavioural, and environmental. It bridges together the behaviourism and cognitive approaches while providing an emphasis on the social context and how these factors influence the contents and way in which people learn. Self-efficacy plays an essential role in the SCT as it is one’s confidence in their own ability to exercise control over their motivation, behaviour, and social environment. One’s level of self-efficacy will affect their behavioural interactions both in the classroom and school, their interests and capabilities, and relationships with peers and teachers. SCT displays learning as a social and cultural process, along with recognising that by helping students develop a sense of personal agency, teachers are able to positively influence their learning process and achievement both in and out of school contexts.
Creating opportunities for collaborative learning, assessment and discussion are some examples of socio-cognitive theory in practice. Within the Visual Arts classroom, students my discuss ideas/concepts for BOWs and share constructive suggestions with peers and teachers. Alternatively, students may collaboratively investigate artists, utilising the frames to foster discussion or the conceptual framework to debate the conceptual strength of a work or works.
Learner diversity refers to the range of students within the classroom, students of diverse backgrounds, SES, learning style and ability amongst many other variables. Differentiation is a response to these learning needs, implementing appropriate guidance and support on a case-by-case basis. Differentiation is informed by pedagogical understanding and content knowledge; founded upon the idea that “every student can do remarkable things with the appropriate guidance” (NESA, 2021).
The Eight Ways of Learning is one of many differentiated learning strategies which may be implemented within the classroom. ‘The Eight Ways of Learning is a pedagogical framework which allows teachers to include Aboriginal perspectives by utilising Aboriginal learning techniques’ (Bangamalanha Centre, 2019).
These eight techniques are interconnected and allow for a wholistic approach to content areas. In past practicums, I have embedded these techniques into both of my teaching areas, Visual Arts and English, I feel that this pedagogical framework similarly lends itself to inquiry based methods of teaching and learning, and when used effectively not only differentiates for our Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, but many of the learners within the classroom, as it utilises a range of teaching strategies, some of which include story sharing, learning maps, visuals and hands-on learning.
In the Visual Arts classroom, creating opportunities for students to have dialogue with Aboriginal artists and engage with the land, it’s history and its significance is a simple example of how this may be embedded. In accordance, ICT in the age of the pandemic (through zoom and microsoft teams) has made engaging with professionals even easier.
Citations
Bangamalanha Centre. (2019). 8 Ways.online. NSW Department of Education, Dubbo.
Behaviourist learning theory supports the learning process by adjusting a student’s response to an external stimulus. Classical conditioning within Behaviourism, founded by Ivan Pavlov, involves a natural or subconscious response. This theory suggests once students have acquired a learned behaviour to a particular stimulus, the teacher may utilise similar stimuli to receive similar results under different circumstances, this is known as generalisation. Generalisation can be understood through the example of a school bell, upon hearing the bell students respond and pack their things. A similar stimulus such as a classroom bell can be utilised to instigate the response of re-congregating after groupwork or packing-up a classroom activity.
Operant conditioning is a subsequent branch of Behaviourism which encompasses the ability to condition a response through positive and negative reinforcement. B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning furthermore concludes the more a behaviour is reinforced, the more likely it will occur. As a practicing teacher, I believe Behaviourism holds some potential in shaping beneficial student behaviours. Within my practicum, I attempted to engage in the behaviourist approach of classical conditioning, using candy as a positive reinforcement. After setting and explaining a task, I outlined that student were required to work quietly and efficiently in order to receive a reward for their efforts. Following this, I navigated the room, my presence being the external stimulus and the learned response being quiet, independent work. However, there were several students who received a reward for their behaviour, only to give the candy away as they were indifferent to the prize. This created controversy within the classroom as students began to dispute how one student had collected multiple rewards whilst behaving incorrectly.
From this experience, I became aware of the difficulty of positive reinforcements in the secondary school classroom, as in order to motivate students, the reward must be of high enough value. Later in my practicum, I continued to provide the external stimulus of navigating the room to provoke quiet independent work, however I adjusted my practice by negatively reinforcing inappropriate behaviours through warnings or moving misbehaving students. I found that through this application of Behaviourism, more students responded with the desired behaviour which only grew more common throughout my placement. In particular, towards the end of my four weeks, I rarely had to reinforce behaviour to receive the desired response.
Although, Behaviourism serves useful when adjusting classroom etiquette, and creating a productive classroom environment; it must be acknowledged that Behaviourism has manly faults as a learning theory. A behaviourist method of teaching risks valuing correct answers over the learning process and is limited in its ability to foster higher order thinking. Behaviourism also neglects the prior knowledge of students and the range of culturally diverse backgrounds that fill a classroom, as it relies on the notion of ‘tabula rasa’ (blank slate).
Information and communication technologies (ICT) are the technologies which assist with storing, arranging and exchanging information (Churchill et al., 2019). When used effectively, ICT has the capacity to exponentially enhance teaching and learning. The TPCK framework introduced by Mishra and Koehler in 2006, suggests that for the effective use of technology within the classroom, teachers must have an extensive knowledge of pedagogy, content, and technology (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The TPCK framework examines and interconnects these elements, promoting pedagogical practices which use technology to communicate the content effectively for learning. Reflecting on the use of ICT, I have developed an understanding of the importance of considering the role of ICT in the classroom when planning for learning. In particular, determining whether the focus of the lesson will be the ICT, the content or the process, as well as acknowledging the potential limitations of technology (Churchill et al., 2019).
During my experience on practicum, I was fortunate to instruct a year 9 Visual Design class, during which, students were required to use the application Photoshop to both design a toy catered to a target audience and create poster advertising their product. The decision to incorporate Photoshop as a platform for the students to create their objects, was made with a consideration of their prior knowledge and access to technology. Fortunately, these students all had access to their own device with Adobe Photoshop and had all used the application in prior assessment tasks. The use of ICT in this experience promoted the enhancement of learning and the experience of students in the classroom. Following the SAMR model, photoshop ‘redefined’ learning by creating a task that would otherwise be inconceivable and allowing students to undertake the role of the artist/marketer and engage with curriculum authentically (Puentedura, 2013; Finger, Russell, Jamieson-Proctor & Russell, 2007). Though the use of technology, students were able to select and manipulate a series of existing images to construct their designs, amongst a range of other tools supported by the platform. Further, by using a professional application like Adobe Photoshop, students had the potential to construct sophisticated advertisements which employed a range of marketing techniques like developing their own company logos.
I feel that the facilitation of this activity demonstrated my knowledge and understanding of Visual Arts and Object Design. Through utilising ICT in the classroom, particularly Adobe Photoshop, I was further able to devise an engaging teaching strategy for students to explore the curriculum in a way that is hands on and student centred. Furthermore, I feel that it was a highly successful activity which assisted me in achieving the AITSL standard 2.1. In accordance, the use of information communications technology with the support of pedagogical and curriculum knowledge expanded the learning opportunities for students in that they were given the autonomy of the artist/designer/marketer and a chance to engage with professional, ‘real world’, tools which demand a level of higher order thinking, hence, an achievement of standard 2.6.
Reflecting on my practicum experience I believe that the activity was successful, I feel that Adobe Photoshop was a good facilitation of ICT for curriculum and pedagogy which was chosen with a consideration of the students’ prior knowledge with and interest in the application. However, I feel that the activity could be improved had I had more experience with the program (Churchill et al., 2019). My knowledge of the application was enough to lead the activity as it was largely student directed, however I believe having training in Photoshop would have allowed me to further extend gifted students and offer more practical assistance.
Churchill, S., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F.; Keddie, A., Letts, W.; Lowe, K.; Mackay, J.; McGill, M.; Moss, J.; Nagel, M.; Shaw, K.; Vick, M. (2018). Teaching: Making a difference (4th ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Finger, G. & Russell, D. & Jamieson-Proctor, R. & Russell, N. (2007). Transforming Learning with ICT : Making IT Happen.
Mishra, P. & Koehler, MJ. (2006), Technological pedagogical content knowledge: a framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017– 54.
Assessment is the practice of gathering reliable evidence on student learning in relation to the syllabus outcomes. This information is used to make a judgement on a student’s level of understanding and development. When used effectively, assessment can improve the success of students by providing consistent feedback to help shape future teaching and learning (Churchill et al., 2019). The three categories of assessment each play different roles in extending learning. In particular, assessment as learning involves students actively assessing their own understanding throughout the learning process (Tomlinson, 2008). This type of assessment requires students to ask questions and participate in a range of strategies to determine their level of understanding and ability (Sambell et al., 2016).
By utilising my understanding of Assessment as learning, I am able to incorporate activities which encourage inquisitive learners and drive students to take responsibility of their learning, through a combination of self-reflection, self-assessment and peer assessment. Furthermore, I planned an activity within an Aboriginal poetry unit of work for year 9 English, which provides students with an opportunity to engage in this combination of activities using Hattie’s Feed Up, Feed Back, Feed Forward methodology (Hattie, 2007). The worksheet can be viewed below in figures 1 and 2.
Students are required to respond to the following question “How do composers use literacy techniques to create meaning?”, structuring their answer as a PEEL paragraph. The first stage of the activity required students to “Feed Up” and consider the learning intentions and success criteria before writing their response. Students are then required to swap with a peer, offering constructive feedback using a series of questions as prompts. Finally, students are returned their papers to complete stages “Feed Back” and “Feed Forward”. In these steps, students self-reflect on their progress, asking themselves, “what does the evidence tell me?”. They also ask themselves “where to next?” and consider the strategies they must implement for improvement and to better achieve the success criteria. I believe the proposed activity would assist me in achieving standards 5.1 and 5.2 as it both demonstrates an “understanding of assessment strategies” and creates an opportunity for timely, purpose driven feedback (AITSL, 2018).
Reflecting on my activity, I believe it could be further improved by the implementation of a more explicit rubric system to combat the potential subjectivity of peer assessment (Gurbanov, 2016). By moving from the more generalised star system to explicit questioning, for example, “Has the student identified a technique?” and “Is the quote integrated into a sentence?”. I believe these “yes or no” style of questions will more effectively maximise objectivity, when peer assessing. Similarly, I feel that in supplying an example of a marked exemplar I would be assisted in further achieving standard 5.3 in regard to assessment moderation (AITSL, 2018). I feel that this would also further enhance the clarity of the activity and support students in developing the skills of peer/self-analysis (Gurbanov, 2016).
Churchill, S., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F.; Keddie, A., Letts, W.; Lowe, K.; Mackay, J.; McGill, M.; Moss, J.; Nagel, M.; Shaw, K.; Vick, M. (2018). Teaching: Making a difference (4th ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Grubanov, E. (2016) The Challenge of Grading in Self and Peer-Assessment. Journal of Education in Black Sea Region, 1(2).
Cognitive learning theory values an understanding of the cognitive process of learning and memory. It defines learning as a constructive process in which the student is an active participant (Bruning et al., 2011). Cognitive learning theories aim for students to achieve deep levels of information processing that are transferred from the working memory eventually through to the long term. The information processing model of teaching and learning represents the mind as similar to the computer when examining the storing and recalling of information. It grants a close understanding of the learning process to assist educators in developing strategies for the deep processing of information (Churchill et al., 2019). These models of teaching and learning promote activities which present information in an organised and sequenced manner, as well as highlight the importance of assimilating new information with previous understandings (Hattie & Donoghue, 2016).
I believe that applying an understanding of cognitive learning theories is highly effective in extending the information processing of students. In examining this theory, I believe the Surface, Deep, Transfer method of teaching is an example of information processing that would prove highly successful within the classroom (Hattie, Fisher & Frey, 2016). I believe that this method could be applied to the English classroom in the analysis of a prescribed texts, for example, a year 11 English advanced class can utilise this model in module B, ‘A Critical Study of Literature’.
In the first stage of “surface” learning, students are required to annotate the prescribed text. This level of processing requires students to connect their prior knowledge of literary techniques and make observations. In the second stage of “deep” learning, students are required to use these annotations to construct TEE tables and analyse how the composer has used literary techniques to create meaning. In the final stage of “transfer” learning, students are required to answer an extended response question. This final task requires the learners to transfer the understandings gathered from the first two activities to a new context and elaborate.
I expect the surface, deep, transfer activity to allow for a successful continuum of learning. I feel that it would allow me to achieve standards 1.2, 2.2 and 3.2 as it demonstrates an understanding of information processing and an awareness of how students learn (AITSL, 2018). Further, it applies an effective strategy of teaching and learning, such as the “surface, deep, transfer” model, and organises the syllabus content accordingly to develop a sequence of progressive activities.
In further reflection, I feel that my activity potentially mightn’t appeal to a range of learning styles in the classroom as the information processing model of teaching and learning fails to account for the genetic and cultural differences of students (Churchill et al., 2019). I believe that I could incorporate my understanding of the “8 ways of learning” to this activity to meet the needs of a range of learners and enhance the success of the information processing model (NSW DOE, 2012). Firstly, an oral reading of the prescribed text to accompany the written, in the first stage of learning. Secondly, visual stimuli could be used and associated with the identified techniques of the “surface” activity. I also believe an element of storytelling and discussion would vastly improve the “deep” activity and finally, connecting the ideas within the text to the community and more largely, the world of the students, to extend the “transfer” of information through class discussion.
Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J. Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. United States: Pearson.
Churchill, S., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F.; Keddie, A., Letts, W.; Lowe, K.; Mackay, J.; McGill, M.; Moss, J.; Nagel, M.; Shaw, K.; Vick, M. (2018). Teaching: Making a difference (4th ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Hattie, J., Fisher, D., Frey, N. (2016). Visible Learning for Literacy, Grades K-12: Implementing the Practices That Work Best to Accelerate Student Learning. United States: SAGE Publications.
NSW Department of Education and Communities. (2012) 8 Ways: Aboriginal Pedagogy from Western NSW.
Constructivist learning theory implies that learning is established through the modification of a student’s existing intellectual framework. It identifies learners as active participants and requires students to make connections between previous and new knowledge (Bruner, 1990). In the constructivist theory of learning, students are encouraged to breakdown information themselves, and interpret material through their lens of individuality (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2018; Scheurman, G. 1998). Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism emphasises the importance of collaboration and defines learning as an interpersonal activity (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2018). Social constructivist theory of learning also institutes the Zone of Proximal Development, being the distance between a student’s current development, and the level of potential development though the support of peers (Churchill et al., 2019).
I am able to utilise my understanding of the Constructivist learning theory in the classroom, to enhance student learning. In particular, through an awareness of the Zone of Proximal Development and the significance of making connections between previously conceived and new knowledge, I can implement open-ended activities which require student collaboration and problem-solving skills. In this way, students are able to investigate a problem, consider the significance of what they already know and work together to reach a solution (Baviskar, Hartle & Whitney, 2009).
In the Visual Arts/Object Design subject area, I believe a constructivist approach to inquiry-based learning would be a fantastic learning experience. I propose an activity in which students are split into groups and given a clay based sculptural form, from there, students are given the task of investigating how this form was constructed. In order to successfully engage in this activity, students must utilise visuacy (visual literacy) skills and apply content knowledge. This activity emphases the importance of artist practice and meduim, as students must draw on their understanding of clay to determine whether the artist’s practice involved slab construction, wheel throwing or coils, as well as question the surface treatment of the work. This activity heavily embodies the constructivist theory of learning as students are required actively inquire about the forms, creating questions and using collaboration to reach an answer.
My proposed constructivist approach to analysing clay-based forms and artist practice meets the AITSL standards 3.1, 3.2. and 3.4 (AITSL, 2018). By instigating a challenging learning goal of working backwards and using a critical eye to examine practice. Similarly, the level of difficulty may be adjusted within this activity to appeal to the varying abilities of students through teacher assistance, prompts and “clues”. By strategically organising the groups into a range of abilities, more capable learners may support the development of lower achieving students, as dictated by the ZPD. This activity organises content to cater for the array of learners in the classroom, visual, kinaesthetic, verbal, as well as requires both individual and collaborative engagement. The use physical artworks as a choice of resources further engaging students in learning by promoting curiosity and inquiry and potentially acting as a ‘hook’.
Although the activity fosters collaborative inquiry to understand artist practice and investigate clay building, the activity has the potential for “blinkered social consensualism” (Fox, 2001 as cited in Liu & Matthews, 2005) in that groups with a limited prior knowledge base may be restricted in their ability to find an accurate conclusion. Therefore, I propose the adaptation where students are required to support and prove their findings with research. By including ICT as an avenue to question their ideas, I lift some of the restrictions based around students’ prior knowledge. Similarly, the criticism of social constructivism that “ignores the role of the individual” (Resnick, 1996 as cited in Liu & Matthews, 2005) may be avoided by adding an element of individual reflection. In asking students to record their findings individually not only addresses individualised learning but begins to address standard 2.5 in cross curriculum priorities of literacy skills. Standard 2.5 could further be explored with the provision of measuring equipment, asking students to consider the weight and dimension of the sculptural form and how that may influence artist practice; as well as consider the limitations of some clay building techniques in relation to scale.
Julie Pennington, Vessels, 2017. Photo: Andrew Sikorski; Julie Pennington
Baviskar 1, S., Hartle, R., & Whitney, T. (2009). Essential Criteria to Characterize Constructivist Teaching: Derived from a review of the literature and applied to five constructivist-teaching method articles. International Journal of Science Education, 31(4), 541-550.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
Churchill, S., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F.; Keddie, A., Letts, W.; Lowe, K.; Mackay, J.; McGill, M.; Moss, J.; Nagel, M.; Shaw, K.; Vick, M. (2018). Teaching: Making a difference (4th ed.). Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Duchesne, S. and McMaugh, A., 2018. Educational psychology for learning and teaching. Cengage AU.
Liu, C. & Matthews, R. (2005) Vygotsky’s philosophy: Constructivism and its criticisms examined. International Education Journal, 6(3), 389-391. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf
Scheurman, G. (1998). From Behaviorist to Constructivist Teaching. Social Education, 62(1), 6-9.
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